Biological Aging What, In A Biological Sense, Is Aging - 2200 Words

Biological Aging: What, In A Biological Sense, Is Aging? (Term Paper Sample) Content: Biological AgingQuestion 1: What, in a biological sense, is aging?A) In a few sentences, define aging in humans.Aging refers to the gradual changes in physiological processes as well as structure in humans with the passage of time, Senescence declines biological functions and reduces the bodys ability to cope with metabolic stress( Bilder,2016).B) List four organ systems or biological processes in the human body that change with age, and briefly, describe the underlying biological causes of those changes. (20 sentences )- The Skin-Thymus-Thyroid gland-The bladderChanges in physiological processes and structure with time may affect the normal functioning of cells, tissues, and organs. Senescence declines various biological functions as well reduces the bodys ability to adapt to metabolic stress. Inability to get rid of oxidative stress agents such as free radicals may make the body cells and organs susceptible to diseases like cancer. In the skin during senescence ther es loss of subcutaneous fat, hair follicles, and melanocytes, blood flow to the skin is also decreased thus reducing nerve ending sensitivity. As a result of this change, the skin loses some of its properties such as thermoregulation and pathogen barrier function. Loss of elasticity is also experienced leading to the formation of wrinkles. The elderly individual will be prone to pathogenic invasion and abnormal temperature changes. Thymus an organ in the immune system shrinks with time, The population of nave T cells depends on the rate of formation in the thymus. Aging leads to involution of the thymus hence reducing the rate at which nave T cells are produced. Memory T cell population therefore deteriorates and weaken with age; this explains why immunity declines with an increase in age. The size of the thyroid gland an organ in the endocrine system also reduces with age. A change in size of thyroid gland may lead to a change in metabolic processes. Morphological and physiological modifications in the thyroid gland may develop health complications. Thyroid disorder is common among the elderly. Change in metabolic processes either increase thyroxine levels above normal or reduces it below optimum. The bladder an organ in the urinary system is also affected by the process of senescence. It undergoes morphological changes, and its capacity is reduced by half in the elderly. That's why old men urinate frequently.C) Is there a difference between the process of aging and diseases that occur more often in old age? Briefly, state why you have concluded this. Be specific. (20 sentences)Theres no difference. The process of senescence is the etiology of these diseases hence the reason why they are associated with the elderly. A change in physiological and metabolic processes as a result of senescence might develop health complications. Aging in humans is associated with an increase in oxidative stress. Failure of the body cells to adapt to metabolic stress due to senes cence increases the levels of reactive oxygen species in the body.ROS will attack the bodys macromolecules like DNA forming DNA adducts as well as lipids generating a chain of reaction known as lipid peroxidation.DNA, lipids and protein damage during senescence as a result of oxidative stress is the cause of many diseases associated with aging(Nimse Pal, 2015).Involution of the thymus as a consequence of the process of aging leads to the etiology of autoimmune diseases. Senescence affects the immune system particularly the thymus. The thymus shrinks and T cells formation reduce hence the rate of T cells elimination exceeds the rate of formation. Loss of T regulatory cells may lead to the increase of autoimmune reactions as well as inflammation. Pro-inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor will facilitate inflammation (Howcroft et al., 2013). .Autoimmune disorders that are common among the elderly will occur. Disorders like Hashimotos thyroiditis, Rheumatoid Arthritis are e xamples of autoimmune and inflammation-related diseases associated with old age. Clots and plaque formation in the blood vessels due to senescence is another common disorder among the elderly. Cerebrovascular system disorder is characterized by the hardening of the arteries and loss of elasticity.The heart muscles reduce in size due to senescence.This leads to cardiopulmonary diseases a defect that is so common among the elderly.Nerve cells lose dendrites as they age.Biosignal processes are affected by these spontaneous changes. Cells, therefore, lose communication, and the sense of hearing and sight are greatly affected. It is evident that diseases that occur mostly during old age are as a result of time-related change in the bodys structure, physiological and metabolic processes.D) At what age do the processes of aging begin?Increase in biochemical and a genetic defect with time is believed to facilitate senescence. A spontaneous change in the genetic makeup of a human being with time modifies the metabolic process. Gene expression is altered, and the process of transcription and translation takes a new path. Expression of defective genes might result from the synthesis of defective proteins. Research has shown that aging begins when normal genes are gradually replaced with broken ones, accumulation of these defective genes increases senescence. This explains why metabolic processes are modified during senescence. Reproductive genes are replaced with broken ones, and hence fertility reduces with increase in senescence. Structures known as telomeres situated at the ends of a chromosome gradually becomes shorter with age signifying reduction in cell division. When it shortens to a critical length, cell division stops and the process of senescence starts. At 25 years old senescence begins, but its followed by subsequent cell division. With time the rate of senescence increases as the rate of cell division decreases. At 40 years of age aging in humans takes a ne w course and cell division stops. The new phase of senescence will affect teeth, heart, hair, bones, and sexuality. Bones weaken and decrease in size. Senescence also leads to behavioral and psychological changes.Question 2: Why does aging occur?Discuss two hypotheses on what causes the cells in our body to age. Include the scientific evidence supporting each hypothesis. Which hypothesis do you think is more likely to be correct, and why. Are these hypotheses necessarily mutually exclusive? (30 sentences)There is an assumption that external forces and environmental pressures facilitate aging, cells and organs are exposed to this condition, and they are damaged, accumulation of damaged cells and organs triggers senescence. Another assumption is that senescence is genetically triggered and programmed. Two types of theory try to explain the process of senescence. That is damage based and programmed ideas. Damage based theory denotes that the accumulation of damaged bimolecular without their replacement facilitates aging and death. Cells and organs are subjected to external forces and pressures leading to their damage and cellular dysfunction. Accumulation of this damaged cells and organs initiates senescence and eventually death. Programmed theories, on the other hand, imply that aging is programmed in the genetic makeup of an invidual and the change in the gene expression system of the genome facilitates aging and death. In this theory, there is an assumption that internal molecular clock controls the rate of growth and development of an individual. Changes in the gene expression system are regulated by these internal molecular clocks. These spontaneous changes are programmed in the genetic makeup of an individual hence aging in this theory is genetically triggered. I think the programme theory of aging is more likely to be true. Its more convincing to say that senescence is genetically programmed than to say that its triggered by external forces and pressures. Most damaged, abnormal proteins and cellular dysfunction processes are as a result of the change in the gene expression system spontaneously. Mutations regulated by internal molecular clocks of the genome are greater than the ones triggered by external environmental factors. Programmed theory of aging is, therefore, more sensible than damage theory of aging. These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive. Damage based approach also recognizes some aspects of genetics while programmed theory recognizes some aspects of environmental factors. Damage theory considers protective and defensive genes and their role in senescence. The programmed approach also considers that interaction of organs and cells with the environment may result in aging at some extent (Bengtson Settersten Jr,2016).Question 3: Is aging inherited?Is there a genetic basis for aging? Explore the evidence and discuss whether a persons genes can influence how rapidly they age. Give at least two pieces of evidence that sugg est there is a genetic component to aging. (20 sentences)Aging is determined by genetic factors like telomeres and the genome. The length of the telomeres structures found at the end of the chromosomes is shortened to a critical length, and senescence begins. They signify the end of cell division and the beginning of senescence. Any alteration of the gene expression system of an individual will also affect his or her senescence. The genome controls aging process. Inheritance of defective genes might lead to premature aging. Research has shown that aging is inherited. Transfer of defective genes from parents to offspring facilitates senescence. Mutations in mitochondrial DNA results in aging. Transfer of mutated mitochondrial genes from mother to offspring and their up-regulation enhances aging. When mutated mitochondrial genes ...

The Differences In The Parenting And Parenthood Concepts In Cultures - 1925 Words

The Differences In The Parenting And Parenthood Concepts In Cultures (Essay Sample) Content: Parenting and Parenthood Name Institutional Affiliation Authors Note I have written the research paper with the intention of expounding on the sociological perspective and theories related to family and kinship. The differences in the parenting and parenthood concepts across various cultures in the world will also be analysed. Parenting and Parenthood Family and Kinship A family is an important social institution that has been extensively studied by sociologists. Family and kinship are related concepts although there is a difference between them. Through an analysis of our lives, it is evident that the two concepts play a significant role from birth until old age. The form of relationship that we establish between the two have a significant impact on members of all communities and affects how they perceive the world. Generally, a family is a group including the parents and the children while a kinship can be understood through the blood relationship of individuals (Mair, 1984). Parenting and parenthood are essential concepts that ultimately determine kinship and family values depending on the approach given by various communities around the world. A family is the smallest unit of any society and therefore, one of the most important institutions that facilitate the proper societal functioning. The concept of the family is not only essential in the modern world but was also important in the pre-modern setting when hunting and gathering was the way of life. George Peter Murdock is one of the classical scholars to make significant contributions to this field of study. He considered the family as a social group that shares a common residence, cooperate economically and reproduces to pass on the values to the offspring (Miller, 2002). In this setting, two adults are supposed to have a socially approved sexual relationship in order to have or adopt children. Kinship has been defined by many scholars using the common idea of blood relationship that is established through aspects such as marriage, adoption or genetic relations. At the basic level, Kinship has the family and later extend to an entire clan. From this approach, it is evident that the family is more restrictive compared to kinship which implies a relatively larger number of members. A profound analysis of the different cu ltural contexts in the world reveals that kinship can differ. There are societies and tribes that carry out rituals which affect the conventional understanding of the kinship concept. However, it is essential to underscore the fact that kinship covers a wide array of roles, responsibilities, duties and privileges. In the modern society, the Asian community has the best form of kinship which is valued and followed to determine the manner that the society is structured (Bhatti, 2002). Patterns in Parenting and Parenthood Before delving into kinship and how the family functions, it is essential to understand the concept of parenting, how it has changed over time, and the manner that different communities in the world perceive it. As the caregiver of the offspring, a parent is supposed to be well versed with the history of the family and its experiences. A parent-child relationship should have the mother and the father playing an active role in modelling the child beliefs and behaviou r (Walsh, 2015). In some communities, the person referred as the father may not be the biological parent like the Malagasy where the Tanala Tribe where a man claims that the first three children born by a divorced wife are his (Kottak, 1971). The case in Australia is also unique in as far as the system of families and kinship is concerned. Some Australian tribes divide the society into classes, and a child born in a given class can only marry from within (Spence, 2004). These people can have from four to eight classification levels that even permit the marriage between cousins. Despite these differences, it turns out that the formation of relationship vary once a union is established. Within a certain range, there are responsibilities and duties that members are supposed to carry out. The Yoruba people in Nigeria have a unique system too in which the term father refers to the male biological parent, his brothers and the brothers of the female biological parent (Thornton & Frickle, 1 987). A great variation would then be observed among the Hawaiians in Polynesia where the term ‘Makua’ is used for both parents as well as their brothers and sisters (Thornton & Frickle, 1987). In the modern westernised societies, the family has evolved, and the importance of the kinship system has subsequently changed. The Indians, for example, have a built-in system that touches on the widows laying claims of a shade relationship. In important ceremonies like weddings, no kin should be absent, therefore enjoying the privilege of invitations. In some unenlightened societies around the world, extended members of a family must be consulted and actively engaged in important kins activities such as marriage and education but the pattern changes in an urban setting where these activities are reduced to mere formalities (Shenk et al., 2016). Sociological Perception of Parenthood The concept of parenthood is understood from various perspective depending on the communi ty being focused on. However, there are conventional approaches that are accepted across all societies. One of the agreed upon ideas is that parenthood as a child-caring aspect. Caring for the children is an important aspect that the family underscores. Caring implies protecting the siblings, attending to their needs and feeding them (Bornstein, 2001). Effective care creates an affection and child feels an important member of a given family. The form of activities that comprises child care might vary depending on the dominant religion, social norms and the laid down laws. The law, for example, often rules that parents are caregivers until the young ones have attained maturity and thus, no longer dependent on any form of support. From a religious perspective, some societies hold the belief that the creator assigned them the duty of taking care of the innocent souls. As a result of these beliefs, parents worry about inculcating negative habits which have negative impacts on their char acter, expression of themselves and the degree of trustfulness. Parenting is also understood and explained from a family-making perspective. In some communities, children are first conceived in order to consider a family as having being established. Enlarging a family is further affected by cultural, political and economic factors that have made people opt for contraceptives to prevent children from being a burden hence, their needs cannot be adequately met. Abortive effects have also been critical in postponing family making until a later and more convenient time. Having children is a way of continuing the family and in some communities, a mean of reassuring immortality when one dies. Parental power is essential in ensuring that young ones are effectively socialized through instilling common values. Raising children is also considered as an important aspect of parenthood in various communities around the world. Parents ensure that their children have the best characters, tas tes and values in order to prevent chances of deviant behaviours that attract negative sanctions. Playing these roles makes parents be the first teachers who teach language, domestic skills as well as moral values. The period that parents take to raise their children varies depending on cultural beliefs, customs and economic factors. In most cases, children are left upon maturity age and being capable of providing for themselves. Parenting and Parenthood across Communities Over time, parenting has changed as people adopt western cultures. The culture is however not perfect because developed nations like the United States is currently undergoing a crisis because very few parents understand the concept of parenting (Riskind & Patterson, 2010). As a result, there is a high dependence on the advice from experts in order to make children successful and productive members in the future. This lack of knowledge places the children at a high risk of growing in a troubling manner in which th ey learn and discover things on their own because the parents are either clueless about parenting or too busy to mould and direct them towards a brighter and promising future. In Scandinavian countries like Norway, parenting is taking as a serious concept in which the government play an active role. At a young age, children join daycare’s that are state-sponsored. Norwegian authorities must have realised that parenting is a critical aspect and when people are left to do it depending on their little knowledge, a confused generation is likely to emerge (Lorensen et al., 2004). A similar approach is adopted in Japan where there is a strong belief that children should learn about being independent and doing things on their own. At night, the children are supposed to have ample time with their parents. For example, there is the right to have the parents’ bodies as their comfort at night, a provision which should not be denied. The idea is more emphasized in Korea where parents spend most of their time with children making physical contact (Cote et al., 2015). Parenting in the Jewish communities lays emphasis on other aspects such as ensuring that children are taught how to swim (Bitter, 2014). The act is meant to make them independent and learn that making mistakes in life can land them into problems. American parents are however different because they are more protective and do not believe that the young ones should be exposed to dangers, violence or even predators. Besides, the culture encourages people to nurture the talents so that the children are prepared to become successful people in life. The parenting environment in Netherlands however different from ...